SELENIUM NANOPARTICLES AS ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF BIOSYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION, MWCHANISMS AND APPLICATIONS

Abstract

Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) show significant promise as antifungal agents because of their unique physicochemical properties, high bioavailability, and lower toxicity compared with conventional selenium forms. This critical review comprehensively analyzes the extensive literature on SeNPs biosynthesis, characterization, precise mechanisms of action, and diverse in vivo applications. The review synthesizes data from chemical, physical, and biological synthesis approaches using fungi, bacteria, actinobacteria, and various plant extracts. Key characterization techniques (UV-Vis, TEM, SEM, XRD, DLS, and zeta potential) are critically evaluated to confirm nanoparticle formation, morphology, size, crystallinity, and colloidal stability. SeNPs have been reported to exert strong antifungal effects partly through inducing oxidative stress through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), disrupting fungal cell membranes, and interfering with essential cellular processes. The crucial influence of particle size, surface charge, and surface coating on antifungal efficacy is thoroughly discussed. In vivo studies indicate that SeNPs can reduce fungal disease severity in plants by up to 90%, improve growth, and enhance antioxidant parameters in animal models. However, critical appraisal reveals recurring methodological shortcomings, including incomplete physicochemical characterization, lack of accurate concentration measurements (ICP-MS), and limited safety assessments. The review concludes with evidence-based recommendations for standardized protocols to facilitate the translation of SeNPs into reliable agricultural and medical applications.